In March, Britain signs the Treaty of Amiens, making peace with the French Republic. But the French and English are mutually suspicious and the peace will not last.
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1805 Austerlitz
Great Britain, Austria, Russia, and Sweden form a Third Coalition against France. Napoleon marches into Germany, defeating an Austrian army at Ulm in October. He advances into Austria, occupying Vienna, and defeating the joint Austro-Russian army commanded by Marshal Mikhail Kutuzov at the Battle of Austerlitz in December. Austria accepts the Treaty of Pressburg and withdraws from the war.
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1805 British Victory at Trafalgar
British Admiral Horatio Nelson annihilates a Franco-Spanish fleet in the Battle of Trafalgar, thereby destroying the French challenge to British seapower and removing the threat of a French invasion of Britain.
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1807 Napoleon in Iberia
In November and December, Napoleon's armies seize Portugal which has violated the embargo Napoleon maintains against Great Britain. French troops also occupy northern Spain.
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1807 The Chesapeake Incident
Off the coast of Virginia, a British man-of-war fires upon the US frigate Chesapeake. The British then board the Chesapeake and seize four men suspected of being deserters. Several American leaders demand that the US go to war with Britain, but President Jefferson prefers to settle the problem diplomatically. He will attempt to use trade restrictions to force respect for US sovereignty.
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1807 Human Slave Trade Curtailed
Britain outlaws the human slave trade and persuades France to do the same. Portugal and Spain soon follow. British anti-slave ships patrol the Atlantic. Many African entrepreneurs who have profited from the human slave trade turn to supplying Europe with palm oil for soap.
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1809 US-Brit Trade Quagmire
The British Minister to Washington, conferring with United States President James Madison, agrees that Britain will repeal her 1807 Orders in Council and that Madison will end the trade embargo with Britain. A total of 1,200 American ships set sail for British ports. But the Crown says the ambassador has spoken without authorization and consequently halts trade again.
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1810 Swinging Hanovers
Britain's King George III has even more trouble with his eight sons than he has had with his American colonists. George, Prince of Wales, a well-known drunkard and womanizer, keeps company with his father's political enemies, the Whigs. Edward, Duke of Cumberland, is suspected of murdering his valet. The Duke of York, Commander in Chief, has sold army commissions through his mistress. The Duke of Clarence is supported by an actress, Mrs. Jordan. This couple has 10 children before he dumps her for a German princess. The Duke of Kent is no better; Parliament is often called upon to pay the enormous debts run up by this charming family.
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1812 Rothschilds Aid British
The Duke of Wellington's campaign against Napoleon is financed with gold, Guineas, guilders, and French Napoleon d'or, smuggled into Britain by the eight sons of the Rothschild family. Speaking only Yiddish, the Rothschilds use fake passports, disguises, false names and bribes to elude the French. In the process, they organize the world's first international bank clearing house - an institution that facilitates the exchange of money (in the form of bills, checks, notes, etc.) and settling of balances among banks throughout the world.
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1812 James Henry Squeals
Up to now the American public has been lukewarm to the prospect of another war with Britain. When the British renege on their promises to support him as a spy, James Henry tells Secretary of State James Monroe, who passes the story to President Madison, who presents the affair to Congress. The story coalesces support for the war in both Congress and the public mind.
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1812 War of 1812
The revived war between Britain and France successfully interrupts American trade to the point of inactivity. The British commandeer US cargoes and shanghai American sailors, pressing them into war duty. Congress declares war on Britain despite total Federalist opposition. Crushing defeats follow early naval victories. Matters are not helped when American and Canadian Indians, led by Tecumseh, join forces with the British.
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1813 Napoleon Loses Allies
After Napoleon's defeat in Russia, most of his European allies turn against him. Prussia breaks its alliance with France and joins with Britain, Sweden and Russia to form the Sixth Coalition against Napoleon. The French-occupied countries call the anti-Napoleonic campaigns the Wars of Liberation. Napoleon is able to fight back his enemies at Lutzen and Bautzen in May. When Austria breaks its loyalties to France and joins the Coalition in August, battle breaks out in Dresden. The French triumph in Dresden, but in October his forces are outnumbered at Leipzig and his army is crushed in the Battle of Nations. Boneparte abandons his army to pursue desperate plans for a new attack from Paris. The Allies pursue the retreating Napoleon into France itself.
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1813 Guineas Gone
Britain issues her last gold guineas.
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1814 Napoleon Abdicates
The Allies have driven Napoleon's forces from Germany and Spain. He conducts a brilliant defense of the city of Paris, but is forced to surrender at the end of March. Napoleon abdicates and is exiled to the island of Elba, near his birthplace of Corsica. Napoleon is given sovereignty over Elba and immediately reforms the island's administration. Meanwhile, the victorious Allies, Britain, Prussia, Austria and Russia, meet at the Congress of Vienna to construct the new postwar order. Louis XVIII, heir to the last Bourbon King of France, is installed as King in Paris.
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1814 War of 1812 Ends
An invasion from Canada is repelled by the United States. The US and Britain sign a peace treaty at Ghent, Belgium. Shortly after the signing, US forces score a victory over the British at New Orleans; word of the treaty had not yet crossed the ocean. The Battle of New Orleans makes a national hero of Andrew Jackson.
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1815 Britain Occupies Ceylon
Having taken over Dutch settlements on Ceylon, Britain now moves to occupy the entire island.
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1815 Post-Waterloo Depression
Great Britain suffers a depression as 400,000 British soldiers returning from Waterloo join the ranks of unemployed civilians. Lack of a war has halted the need for military supplies, and European neighbors can't absorb the backlogged inventory of British merchandise. Prices fall and thousands lose their jobs.
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1815 "Second" Treaty of Paris
After Napoleon's final defeat, Britain, Austria, Prussia and Russia gather to sign the 1815 Treaty of Paris. The Allies reduce France to the boundaries of 1790.
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1815 Congress of Vienna
The victors of the Napoleonic Wars gather for the Congress of Vienna. Britain, Russia, Austria, and Prussia create a peace treaty that remakes the European balance of power in their favor. The Treaty of Vienna restores the Bourbon monarchy in France, creates a German Confederation from assorted princely states and establishes a permanent international congress to continue discussion between the superpowers. The Treaty enlarges Prussia, and eradicates the short-lived Duchy of Poland, dividing that fallen state between Prussia, Austria and Russia.
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1815 The Holy Alliance
Two emperors and a king come together to create the Holy Alliance. Alexander I of Russia, Francis I of Austria (former Holy Roman Emperor Francis II), and Frederick William III, King of Prussia, sign a compact that aims to further Christian ideals in government. Francis is a Roman Catholic, Alexander Russian Orthodox and Frederick William a Lutheran Protestant. Although the Holy Alliance comes to be associated with the repressive policies of these three monarchs, other European rulers also sign the declaration. Only three European states decline to join this compact: Britain, the Ottoman empire, and the Vatican.
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1819 Post-Waterloo Boom
Five years after the Battle of Waterloo, speculation in commodities and securities in England and in manufacturing behind an embargo in the US are fueled by monetary expansion from banks in both countries. The speculation peaks in August 1818 in the US and in December 1818 in Britain. In England the fever recedes gradually, but in the US there is a panic from November 1818 to June, 1819. Treasury specie deposits fund last resort loans in the US.
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1819 Britain Colonizes Singapore
Britain pushes farther into the Pacific, establishing a colony on the island of Singapore.
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1824 Britain Enters Burma
The British Empire begins its incursions into Lower Burma.
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1824 Anglo-Dutch Accord
A treaty between Great Britain and the Netherlands gives Britain control of the island of Malacca while leaving the Indonesian archipelago to the Dutch.
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1825 Baring Loan Bust
In Britain, the success of the Baring loan and the decline in interest rates trigger speculation in Latin American bonds, mines and cotton. Monetary expansion is fed by country banks and the sale of bonds in installments. The peak comes early in the year, the crash in December. The Bank of England makes loans of last resort.
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1832 First Reform Act
In Britain, the First Reform Act eliminates parliamentary districts that have lost their population, as well as those controlled by the Crown. Representation is transferred to the most populous counties and to the cities of Birmingham and Manchester. The vote is extended to adult males who occupy residences with a value of ten pounds or greater. This includes more middle class males than ever before, but still only one man in thirty may vote. Nonetheless, this increase in potential voters motivates registration drives and the development of party organizations.
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1832 Slavery Abolished By Britain
Emancipation of all slaves in the British empire is decreed by an act of Parliament. Quaker abolitionists have been particularly active in this endeavor. Compliance throughout the colonies is not immediate, but within five years 750,000 Caribbean and African people are liberated.
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1832 Conservative Party Formed
Tory Party member Robert Peel starts the Conservative Party in Britain. Peel takes advantage of the Reform Bill of 1832, which gives more Parliamentary seats to industrial areas and lowers voting restrictions. Peel calls his party "Conservative" to win more widespread support for Tory programs.
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1833 British Administrator Fails
The first administrator from Britain arrives in New Zealand, ostensibly to curtail the damage done by Europeans to the Maoris. He is so ineffective that the British decide to take possession of the interior.
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1836 Railroad Bubble
The growth of the textile industry in Britain encourages speculation in cotton and railroads. Joint-stock banks expand the money supply, driving stock prices higher and higher. The market peaks in April and crashes in December. Until this time, railroads have always been sound investments in Britain; after this crash most railroad booms will prove to be short-lived bubbles.
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1839 First Opium War
Great Britain attacks Chinese harbors when the Chinese authorities try to prohibit British importation of opium into China. The Opium War will end in a devastating humiliation for China.
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1839 Britain Acquires Aden
The British seize Aden on the lower Red Sea.
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1840 New Zealand Given to the Crown
The Maoris of New Zealand hand their lands over to Britain's Queen Victoria in return for British protection. The New Zealand Company, with sturdy financial backing, settles hundreds of migrants at Wellington.
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1842 Treaty of Nanking
China loses the Opium War with Great Britain. The Treaty of Nanking forces the Chinese to open certain ports to British goods, including opium, and to cede Hong Kong to the British Empire.
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1843 Treaty of the Bogue
In the Treaty of the Bogue, China is forced to open more ports to Britain. Britain now has access to Canton, Amoy, Foochow, Ning-po, and Shanghai.
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1844 British Bank Charter Act
The new British Bank Charter Act gives control of Britain's currency to private bankers. All banknotes are hereafter issued against securities and bullion in these bank's vaults.
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1844 Britain Running Out of Gold
Shipments of gold to the United States and consequences of the Charter Act have severely reduced gold reserves in Britain. All notes not written by the Bank of England will eventually be eliminated.
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1846 America Gains Oregon
The United States gains Pacific Northwest territory south of the 49th parallel (49∞ lat.) known as the Oregon Country when it signs a treaty with Britain.
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1846 Oregon Question Settled
After a long dispute over the Oregon country - the Pacific Northwest between the parallels of 42 deg and 54 deg 40' north, the area north of California and south of the Alaskan panhandle - the Oregon Question is finally settled by a treaty between the United States and Great Britain when Oregon country is divided at the 49th parallel.
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1848 Self-Government for Canada
Robert Baldwin and Louis Hippolyte LaFontaine lead a campaign to make the colonial administration of Canada responsible to the elected assembly rather than the royal governor. A new administration in Britain responds to the Canadian demands and the governments of Canada and Nova Scotia are both placed under the control of elective assemblies.
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1850 Britons Double Since 1850
Britain's population has doubled in the last fifty years.
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1850 Britain Prospers
Britain prospers after removing tariffs on foodstuffs. Previously a food grower and exporter, she begins to import her food and pays for it with her manufactured goods. Wages increase in proportion to increasing prices and food prices remain low.
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1850 Industrialization Spreads
Britain spreads the Industrial Revolution by exporting knowledge, engineers, entrepreneurs and capital to her trading partners and colonies. Meanwhile, Britain's population has nearly doubled in the past 50 years.
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1850 Representational Government Awarded
Britain's Government Act gives representational government to all the Australian colonies except Western Australia. The colonies develop separate tariff policies and railway systems. This hinders inter-colonial trade and communication.
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1850 The Clayton-Bulwer Treaty
The United States and Britain are both eager to join the Atlantic and Pacific oceans by building a canal through Panama. To avoid conflict, they agree to give up exclusive rights to such a canal. The Clayton-Bulwer Treaty requires that the canal be internationally neutral.
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1853 Crimean War
The Crimean War started as another in a series of wars fought between Russia and Turkey. But it expands into a war fought by many countries, such as Britain, over territory, colonial expansion and religion.
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1855 Railway In Canada
Britain's North American colonies, Newfoundland, New Brunswick and Prince Edward Island, are granted self-government similar to that enjoyed by the provinces of Canada and Nova Scotia. The introduction of the railway makes development of the Canadian interior possible.
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1856 Second Opium War
China's attempts to restrict the importation of opium lead France to join Britain in a second Opium War against China. China's defeat will result in the Treaties of Tientsin.
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1856 End of the Crimean War
The Crimean War comes to an end as Russia and her opponents sign the 1856 Treaty of Paris. Britain, France, Austria and the Ottoman Empire force Russia to demilitarize and neutralize the Black Sea, assuring continued British commercial domination of the eastern Mediterranean. Russia also gives up the protectorate over Christian subjects of the Ottoman Empire, and returns southern Bessarabia to Moldavia, thereby losing access to the Danube River. The other European powers also promise to respect the boundaries of the Ottoman Empire.
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1857 End of the Moguls
After successfully suppressing the Indian Mutiny, Britain deposes the last Mogul emperor and assumes direct imperial rule over India.
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1858 Treaties of Tientsin
Britain, France, Russia, and the United States force China to accept the Treaties of Tientsin These treaties open 11 new ports to foreign trade, permit foreigners to travel freely throughout China and to establish diplomatic offices in Peking. The treaties reflect the mixed motives of the western nations; they permit Christian missionary activity and legalize the opium trade.
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1864 British North America Unifies
Representatives from the Province of Canada propose a union of all British North America. The British government accepts. Refusing to ratify the proposal at first, New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island, Nova Scotia and Newfoundland eventually succumb to pressure from Britain and the United States.
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1865 News of Assassination
Reuters News Service succeeds in being the first to bring news of Abraham Lincoln's assassination to Europe. They are a week earlier than the competition. Reuters American agent James McClean hires a tug boat, overtakes the mailboat bound for Britain, and throws aboard a cannister containing his dispatch.
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1867 Britain Extends Franchise
Britain further extends the right to vote, although it still does not reach all adult men.
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1867 British Liberal Party Born
After passing the second Reform Act, Whigs, radicals and Peelites (left-wing Tories supporting Robert Peel) combine to form the Liberal Party. William Gladstone will begin to represent the party next year as prime minister of Britain. Gladstone will support Home Rule for Ireland, but will repeatedly fail to find enough endorsement in Parliament.
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1869 The Suez Canal
The Suez Canal opens, connecting the Mediterranean to the Red Sea. Great Britain acquires a controlling interest in the canal, which enables it to move goods quickly from its oriental colonies to the West.
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1873 Sun Sets for Britain
An era of British prosperity and economic superiority reaches an end as Germany and the United States begin to eclipse her economic power.
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1874 Britain Takes Malaysia
One by one, Great Britain assumes sovereignty over the states of the Malay peninsula.
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1877 Fruits of Philosophy
Britain restricts freedom for the Besants who have republished Charles Knowlton's Malthusian work "Fruits of Philosophy," advocating contraception.
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1880 Europeans Occupy Africa
Over the next decade European powers occupy and annex region after region in Africa by treaty or by force. Without political unity, most African states cannot resist the superior arms of the Europeans. France, Germany, and Britain compete for access to the natural resources of Africa.
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1885 Indian National Congress
The Indian National Congress is formed. This broad-based political party will turn from requesting minor reforms in Britain's administration of India to demanding full independence for the country.
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1885 Reform Act of 1885
Under Prime Minister William Gladstone's Liberal Party, Britain's agricultural workers are permitted to vote for the first time. Women of all classes remain disenfranchised.
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1886 Britain Takes Burma
Britain completes its conquest of the Indian subcontinent when it occupies Burma, capturing the King and annexing the entire country to India. Britain expands rice farming in the region and profits from Burma's oil and mineral resources.
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1888 Britain Acquires Borneo
The British Empire continues to expand in the Pacific, establishing a protectorate over the island of Borneo.
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1889 Brazilian Republic
The Brazilian Empire is overthrown and Brazil becomes a Republic. The different states and regions develop their won political parties, but Brazil's economy is dependent on agricultural export, and most parties agree to support the free-trade policies of Great Britain.
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1890 Baring Crisis
The clearing of land in southern Argentina encourages British speculation in Argentine securities. British investors also plunge into Brazilian coffee, Chilean nitrates and South African gold. Many private companies go public for the first time. Britain's money supply is expanded by the Goschen conversion. The speculation peaks in August. Events in Argentina cause the crash in November. Britain ends its loans to South Africa, Australia, the US and Latin America. The liabilities of the Baring Brothers are guaranteed; the Bank of France makes emergency loans to overextended British institutions, and Russia lends gold to Britain.
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1890 British Foothold in Africa
Cecil Rhodes, wealthy prime minister of Britain's Cape Colony, extolls equality between the British and the Afrikaner under British rule. He begins his attempt to colonize Africa from the "Cape to Cairo" by using his wealth to create a British foothold north of the Transvaal.
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1890 Duke Brings His Cigarettes to UK
James Duke becomes President of the American Tobacco Company, then expands to Britain and winds up with two thirds of the British-American Tobacco Company.
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1890 Kaiser Fires Bismarck
Kaiser Wilhelm II dismisses Otto von Bismarck as chancellor of Germany, and allows the Reinsurance Treaty with Russia to lapse. This move will prove unfortunate for the rest of the world as Bismarck has been striving to maintain amicable relations with both the French and British. Bismarck's fears are confirmed when France and Russia form an alliance. The Kaiser also manages to damage diplomatic relations with Great Britain and Russia.
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1894 Wilhelm II's Foreign Policy
France concludes an alliance with Russia. Kaiser Wilhelm II of Germany regards both countries as potential enemies. Fearing encirclement, he follows the advice of Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz and launches a naval arms race with Britain. He seeks overseas colonies for Germany and meddles in the colonial affairs of Britain and France, needlessly antagonizing the other world powers.
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1895 Venezuela Boundary Dispute
The United States intervenes in the boundary dispute between Venezuela and Great Britain, proclaiming that under the Monroe Doctrine the British can expect American military action if the Venezuelans are treated unfairly
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1898 Fashoda
With Britain dominant in southern Africa and France ruling much of the north, the two nations race to claim the remaining portions of the continent. Britain takes Egypt and the Sudan, while France occupies Tunisia. French and British troops nearly clash in eastern Africa, in the Fashoda Incident, but the two governments reach a compromise and divide Africa into spheres of influence.
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1898 Britain Captures Sudan
British troops capture Khartoum and gain control of the entire Sudan region, ending 13 years of rule by Muslim fundamentalists.
